Gonadotropic hormones and their effect on ovaries

The ovarian changes during the female sexual cycle depend completely on the hormones FSH and LH secreted by the anterior pituitary.

Androgen

Androgenic steroid hormones are the male sex hormones, their function are:

1- Differentiation of the male reproductive tract and brain during fetal life.

2- Stimulation of the testis descend during the last three months of gestation.

Interstitial cells of leydig

The principal function of leydig cells is to produce androgens. Leydig cells begin to secrete androgens during the 7th week of fetal life in response to hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) which is

Inhibin + Androgen binding protein + Estrogen

Inhibin

Is a protein that selectively inhibits the synthesis and secretion of FSH by the pituitary gonadotropes.

Sertoli cells

Sertoli cells have many functions:

1- Provision of nutrients to germ cells.

2- Synthesis of multiple proteins that are secreted into the luminal fluid including caeruloplasm

testes

The testes serve three main functions:

1- Production of gametes.

2- Secretion of hormones that cause differentiation of the brain and reproductive tract during fetal and neonatal development, maintain the structure and function of the reproductive tract, it promotes the development of sexual characteristics.

Anatomy of male reproductive system

The testis composed of 900 coiled seminiferous tubules, each 

average more than 5 meters length in which the sperms are 

found. Between the seminiferous tubules are the interstitial 

cells of leydig for synthesis of testosterone. The sperms pass 

from the

Prevention of Blood Clotting in the Normal Vascular system

 I: Endothelial surface Factors:

      1:The smoothness of the endothelial cell surface : prevent contact activation of the intrinsic clotting

      2:Layer of glycocalyx on the endothelium it is muco- polysaccharide adsorbed to the surfaces of the

        endothelial cells repels clotting factors & platelets.

Rh-Blood TYPES

Rh-Blood groups:

    The Rh-factor named for the rhesus monkey because it was first studied using the blood of this animal.

Rh-agglutinogens (antigens): there are six common types of Rh-antigens each of which is called Rh-factor. These types are C, D, E, c, d, & e.The type D (Rh)-antigen is more antigenic.        

Effect of temperature on spermatogenesis

Normal temperature to spermatogenesis is 32o C, increasing temperature as hot bath of 48oC for 30 minutes reduces sperm count to 90%, sperms ca

Neuroendocrine Regulation of the Testis

Neuroendocrine Regulation of the Testis:-

In hypothalamus GnRH secreted in pulses one pulse every 3 hours, if secreted continuously the anterior pituitary not responds to it, anterior pituitary secrete

Function of seminal vesicle

Function of seminal vesicle:-

The secretion of seminal vesicle form 60% of total volume,its mucoid contain fructose,citric acid and other nutrients,also prostaglandin and fibrenogin

Semen

Semen:

The fluid that ejaculated at the time of orgasm contains sperms and secretion of seminal vesicle, prostate and cowpers gland.

Normal semen volume 2.5-5 ml,

Function of prostate gland

The prostate gland secrete a thin milky fluid (30% of total vol.) contain citrate ions, calcium ions, phosphate ions and clotting

Maturation of sperm in epididymis

The sperm after its formation in the seminiferous tubules pass into the epididymis, they remain for 18-24 hours and become capable of motility, although in the epididymal fluid there are inhibitory

Formation of sperms

Formation of sperms:-

The sperms is composed of head and tail , the head composed of condensed nucleus with only a thin cytoplasmic cell membrane layer around its surface.

Hormonal factors that stimulate spermatogenesis

Hormonal factors that stimulate spermatogenesis :

1. LH secreted by anterior pituitary stimulates leydig cells to secrete testosterone.

2. Testosterone secreted by leydig cells is essential for growth and division of germinal cells in forming sperms.

Acrosome reaction

Acrosome reaction

The acrosome enzyme hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes released to open a pathway

Spermatogenesis (sperms formation)

The seminiferous tubules contain large number of germ cells called spermatogonia, located in 2-3 layers. In the 1st stage of spermatogenesis, type A spermatogonia divided 4 times (mitosis) to form 16 more

Transport of Substances Through the Cell Membrane “Diffusion” Versus “Active Transport.”

Transport of Substances Through the Cell Membrane “Diffusion” Versus “Active Transport.”

 Transport through the cell membrane, either directly through the lipid bilayer or through the proteins, occurs by one of two  basic processes:

(1) Diffusion.

(2) Active transport.

NUCLEUS & Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes

Nucleus

: The nucleus is the control center of the cell. Briefly, the nucleus contains large quantities of DNA, which are the genes. The genes determine the characteristics of the cell’s proteins, including the structural

                     

Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell

Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell

The fibrillar proteins of the cell are usually organized into filaments

Mitochondria

Mitochondria:

The  mitochondria also   called the “power houses” of the cell. Without them, cells would be unable to extract enough energy from  the nutrients, and essentially all cellular functions would cease. Mitochondria are present in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm, but the total number per cell

Secretory Vesicles

Secretory Vesicles:

One of the important functions of many cells is secretion of special chemical substances. Almost all such secretory substances are formed by the endoplasmic  reticulum–G

Lysosomes & Peroxisomes

Lysosomes: Lysosomes    are  vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus and then dispersing throughout the cytoplasm. The lysosomes  provide an intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest:

 (1) Damaged cellular structures.

Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus:  

Is closely related to the endoplasmic reticulum. It has membranes similar to those of the  a granular endoplasmic  reticulum.  It usually is composed

of  four or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles lying near  one side of the nucleus. This a

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cytoplasm and Its Organelles

The cytoplasm is filled with both minute and large dispersed particles and organelles. There are five important organelles: the endoplasmic  reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes  and  peroxisomes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

             

It's  a network

Membrane Carbohydrates—The Cell “Glycocalyx.”

 Membrane Carbohydrates—The Cell “Glycocalyx.”

 Membrane  carbohydrates occur  almost  invariably in  combination with proteins or lipids in the form of glycoprotein  or  glycolipids,  the entire outside surface of the cell often has a loose carbohydrate coat called the glycocalyx. The carbohydrate  moieties attached to

Cell Membrane Proteins

Cell Membrane Proteins.

There are  globular  masses floating in the lipid bilayer. These are membrane  proteins, most of which are glycoproteins. Two types of proteins are present:

 Integral proteins:

 They  protrude  all  the  way through  the  membrane, Many of the integral proteins provide structural 

Membranous Structures of the Cell

Membranous Structures of the Cell

Most organelles of the cell are covered by membranes composed  primarily of lipids and proteins. The lipids of the membranes provide a barrier that  impedes the movement of water and water-soluble  substances from one cell compartment to another  because water is not soluble in lipids. Protein  molecules in the membrane often do penetrate

Organization of the Cell

Organization of the Cell

A typical cell formed by  two  major parts  the  nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is separated from

The Body Fluid Compartments

The Body Fluid Compartments:  Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids; Interstitial Fluid and Edema

The maintenance of a relatively constant volume  and a stable composition of the body fluids is essential for homeostasis.

Atherosclerosis:

Atherosclerosis is the major cause of chronic arterial occlusion. "Response to injury hypothesis" proposed by Ross was the most accepted hypothesis for the formation of atheromatous plague.

Risk factors for atherosclerosis:

1.     Smoking

2.     Diabetes mellitus

3.     Dyslipidemia

Intrahepatic Biliary Tract Disease and tumors of liver

SECODARY BILIARY CIRRHOSIS 

Prolonged obstruction of extrahepatic biliary tree.

Causes

 - in adults (cholelithiasis, malignancies, surgical strictures)
 - in children (cystic fibrosis, congenital anomalies of biliary tree)

ALPHA-1 ANTITRYPIN DEFICIENCY

Autosomal-recessive disorder

Pathogenesis

- Accumulation of 

α₁AT in endoplasmic reticulum leads to:
 * Autophagy

WILSON DISEASE

Autosomal-recessive characterized by deficiency in ATP7B enzyme leading to:
 - decrease in copper transport into bile impairment of copper incorporation into ceruloplasmin.

HEMOCHROMATOSIS

excessive accumulation of body iron, mostly in liver & pancreas 

Types

 - primary
 - secondary (hemosiderosis)
 * repeated blood transfusions
 * increased intestinal abs

NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE (NAFLD)

* Simple hepatic steatosis
* Steatosis with minor inflammation
 - both are asymptomatic

Other inhibitors of cell wall

:

1- Vancomycin: 

 - It is a glycopeptide

 - Is active only against gram positive bacteria.

Other Beta-Lactam Antibiotics

:

1- Carbapenems:

Structurally related to beta-Lactum antibiotics. 

     A- Imipenem.

     B- Meropenem.

Imipenem has wide spectrum of activity.

    - Gram positive

    - Gram negative, and Anaerobes.

Cephalosporins

Cephalosporins

Similar to Penicillins:

- Chemically.

- Mechanism of action.

- Toxicity.

ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE

factors influencing development & severity   of liver disease
 - Quantity of alcohol
 - Duration of consumption

Drug and Toxin-Induced Liver Disease

General features

 - Genetic variability is a critical factor
 - Injury of hepatocytes or biliary epithelium causing cell death or disruption of cellular function may result

Autoimmune Hepatitis

Chronic & progressive hepatitis of unknown etiology.

Pathogenesis

 - T cell-mediated autoimmunity may be due to defect in regulatory T-cells

 - Genetic factors likely play a role

Hepatitis E Virus

·       Single stranded RNA, incubation period 6 weeks. 

·       Water-borne infection affecting young to middle-aged adults (oral route).

·       Causes acute self-limiting hepatitis.

Hepatitis D Virus

* RNA virus dependent for its life cycle on HBV.
* Hepatitis arises in the following settings.

·        Acute coinfection after exposure to serum containing both HDV & HBV.
- Acute h

Hepatitis C Virus

Single stranded RNA, incubation period    2-26 weeks

Most common chronic blood-borne infection    

             

Routes of Transmission

 - Inoculations

Acute viral hepatitis (Hepatitis B Virus)

DNA virus, incubation period 4-26 wks

Diseases 

 - Acute hepatitis with recovery.

 - Non progressive chronic hepatitis.

Hepatitis A Virus

Hepatitis A Virus

Single stranded RNA picovirus with           incubation period of 3-6 weeks    

Clinical Features

 - Asymptomatic or mild, rare after childhood.
 - Rarely fulminant hepatitis (0.1%).

Ø Occurs worldwide & is endemic in places with substandard hygiene (people may have

Viral hepatitis

Hepatic infection caused by hepatotropic viruses (A, B, C, D, & E)      

Clinicopathologic Syndromes 

·        Acute asymptomatic infection

Anthrax

Anthrax

There are three recognized forms of infection with Bacillus anthracis:

1.      Cutaneous anthrax.

2.     Gastrointestinal anthrax.

3.     Inhalational (pulmonary) anthrax.

Cutaneous Anthrax

ANCYLOSTOMIASIS (HOOKWORM)

The hookworms
most infections by adult worms are due to:

1. Ancylostoma duodenale

2. Necator americanus.

ANCYLOSTOMIASIS (HOOKWORM) 

Epidemiology, MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE CYCLE:

Nematoda

Nematoda (round worm)

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES (ROUNDWORM) 

This pale yellow nematode is 20-35 cm long. Humans are infected by eating food contaminated with mature ova. Ascaris larvae hatch in the duodenum, migrate through the lungs, ascend the bronchial tree, are swallowed and mature in the small intestine.

Testicular tumors

Testicular tumors

•         Divided into 2 major categories

–       Germ cell tumor (95 %).

–       Non Germ cell tumor derived from stroma or sex cord.

•         Most Germ cell tumors are highly aggressive cancer capable of rapid wide dissemination.

•         generally non Germ cell tumors are benign .

Testes & epididymis inflamation

Inflammation

•         More common in epididymis than in testis

•         Four major specific types

–       Gonorrhea.

–       T.B. (mostly involve the epididymis).

–       Mumps.

–       Syphilis (affect first the testis).

Testes & epididymis disorder

Testes & epididymis

•         Congenital anomalies.

•         Inflammations.

•         Tumors.

Tumor of penis

Tumor

Benign tumor:

Condyloma  Acuminatum

•         Caused by HPV type 6 & 11.

•         Occurs on the external genital & peri anal.

•         In penis occurs most often about the coronal sulcus & inner surface of the prepuce.

Inflamation of penis

Inflammation

Balanoposthitis:

•         Infection of the glans & prepuce.

•         Most common seen in uncircumcised newborns.

•         Caused by pyogenic bacteria, anaerobic bacteria, Candida  albicans , strept ,  staph.